What Are The Charges Against Socrates - 1019 Words

Maria Suleman Professor Nathan Poage Introduction to philosophy PHIL 1301 30 October 2015 What are the charges against Socrates as recorded in the Apology. Is he guilty of them? Why or why not? The Apology is assumed to be the most realistic account that has been conserved of Socrates defense of himself as it was presented before the Athenian Council. It is in essential agreement with the references to the trial that occur in Plato s other dialogs. We may determine that Apology is not written by Socrates and only contains the words of Socrates that were memorized by Plato, since he was present at the time of the trial. However, we know that Socrates was Plato’s teacher and had been admired by him a lot. We should bear in mind that Plato’s views about Socrates’s trial could be biased. But on the other hand it is quite possible that Socrates defense of himself was even convincing than what has been reported by Plato. The charges against Socrates were brought by two type of accusers, the older and ancient ones and the later brought by Anytus, Meletus and others who were present at the time of trial. We’ll discuss all the charges one by one and wha t did Socrates say in his defense. The first charge that he summed up in his speech was â€Å"Socrates, a wise man, who speculated about the heaven above, and searched into the earth beneath, and made the worse appear the better† (Plato 18). Socrates defended these accusations by saying that they were based entirely on falsehoods, andShow MoreRelatedSocrates Method of Cross-Examine Essay example1392 Words   |  6 Pagesargue that Socrates does not typically benefit those that he cross-examines, but that his activity is nonetheless useful and justified. I will argue that Socrates’ cross-examinations are justified and useful because it is a divine mission and because it develops critical thinking skills. I will argue my thesis by first, using The Apology and Euthyphro dialogues to show the usefulness and justification of Socrates’ elenchus. Second, I will suggest objections to the reasons why Socrates’ elenchus isRead MoreA Just Man Should Fear No Death in the Apology by Plato Essay825 Word s   |  4 Pagesby Plato, and relates Socrates’ defense at his trial on charges of corrupting the youth and impiety. Socrates argues that he is innocent of both charges. His defense is ultimately unsuccessful, and he is convicted and sentenced to death. Socrates concludes the Apology by arguing that a just man should have no fear of death. Socrates defends himself against the charges brought against him by his prosecutor Meletus in two ways. One way consists of a description of Socrates’ motivation and methodRead MoreAn Unexamined Life Of Socrates1199 Words   |  5 Pages An Unexamined Life Lyndsey Emry PHIL 1381-17 Introduction to Philosophy Professor Bannister When studying Socrates, you the reader must come up with your point of view and take what Socrates is trying to teach into your own approach. You must also think why Socrates choose the words he choose. Socrates careful choice of words give much color to his quote, â€Å"an unexamined life is no life for a human being to live.† The word examined for example has many definitions, including: toRead MoreThe Charges Against Socrates Essay640 Words   |  3 PagesThe Charges Against Socrates The charges against Socrates were brought upon him by a man names Meletus. Meletus was a young man that Socrates did not know very well. These charges brought on by Meletus caused the indictment of Socrates. One of the charges in the affidavit written by Meletus against Socrates is that he is corrupting the youth. Another charge that is brought upon Socrates is that of he is making up new Gods and disregarding the old Gods the Athenians believe in. TheseRead MoreSocrates : Not Guilty1610 Words   |  7 PagesSocrates: Not Guilty Intro (138) In 399 BC, when he was seventy years old, Socrates was called into court by three men: Meletus, a poet, Anytus, a politician, and Lycon, an orator. The specific charges were impiety (namely that he did not believe in the gods of Athens, and instead had introduced new gods), and corruption of the youth of the city. The account of Socrates’ trial is preserved in the Apology by Plato, a dialogue that ought not to be considered a verbatim report of Socrates’ defenseRead MoreEssay about Four Charges Brought Agains Socrates in the Apology by Plato1029 Words   |  5 Pagesessay I will talk about four charges that were brought against Socrates in the work Apology by Plato. After describing the charge I will then go on to talk about why I think each of them are completely fake. There were four charges that were brought against Socrates. They were that he argued the weaker claim over the stronger claim, that he argue the physical over the metaphysical, that he was against the gods and that he was corrupting the youth. All of these charges are completely and utterly fakeRead More Argument in the Apology Essay897 Words   |  4 Pagesphilosopher Plato is whether, notorious speaker and philosopher Socrates is corrupting the youth by preaching ungodly theories and teaching them unlawful ideas that do harm to individuals and society. In his words Socrates quoted the prosecution’s accusation against him: â€Å"Socrates is guilty of corrupting the minds of the young, and of believing in supernatural things of his own invention instead of the gods recognized by the state.† 1 Further Socrates consistently introduces tediously compiled number of examplesRead MoreEssay on Platos Apology932 Words   |  4 Pagesof seventy, Socrates found himself fighting against an indictment of impiety. He was unsuccessful at trial in the year 399 B.C. The charges were corrupting the youth of Athens, not believing in the traditional gods in whom the city believed, and finally, that he believed in other new divinities. In Platos Apology, Socrates defends himself against these charges. He claims that the jurors opinions are biased because they had probably all seen Aristophanes comedy The Clouds. The Socrates portrayedRead MoreApology Paper1168 Words   |  5 PagesRichard March 15, 2013 Apology Paper In Apology by Plato, Socrates, who is convicted and sentenced to death by the jury of Athenian citizens, not only pleads his innocence, but also expresses his opinion on democracy. The speeches and dialogues Socrates makes in this book raises a question for the reader whether the jury of Athenian citizens is justified in convicting Socrates and condemning him to death. Although Socrates believes that he is innocent, the jury has justification. It is myRead MoreSocrates Essay728 Words   |  3 PagesSocrates Socrates spent his time questioning people about things like virtue, justice, piety and truth. The people Socrates questioned are the people that condemned him to death. Socrates was sentenced to death because people did not like him and they wanted to shut him up for good. There was not any real evidence against Socrates to prove the accusations against him. Socrates was condemned for three major reasons: he told important people exactly what he thought of them, he questioned ideas

Fraud Orchestrated By Three Senior Executives Of Fair...

SUMMARY OF KEY FACTS. This case involved a fraud orchestrated by three senior executives of Fair Finance Company (Fair) which had its headquarters at Akron Ohio. This fraud occurred from at least 2005 through November 2009 the defendants involved were the three senior executives –Timothy S. Durham, Chief Executive Officer, James F. Cochran, Chairman, and Rick D. Snow, Chief Financial Officer. These executives defrauded their investors by raising approximately $230 million from at least 5,200 investors through the sale of investment certificates by making materially false and misleading misrepresentations and omissions concerning, among other and returns, and the use of investor proceeds to purchase discounted consumer receivables. (SEC litigation release 2012) In 2002, two of the defendants Durham and Cochran acquired Fair finance company a successful finance company that earned profits by using proceeds from investors to purchase discounted consumer receivables. After the acquisition of Fair by the defendants, they changed the business model by using a steadily increased amount of investor’s proceeds to finance the unprofitable and failing business controlled by the Durham and Cochran under the disguise of loans –related party transaction or advances, to make interest payment to investors for the benefits of themselves, their families and friends. (SEC litigation release 2012) Fair Holdings’ accountants soon began questioning its financial statements, raising numerousShow MoreRelatedAccounting Fraud at Worldcom8726 Words   |  35 PagesKIRON Accounting Fraud at WorldCom WorldCom could not have failed as a result of the actions of a limited number of individuals. Rather, there was a broad breakdown of the system of internal controls, corporate governance and individual responsibility, all of which worked together to create a culture in which few persons took responsibility until it was too late. — Richard Thornburgh, former U.S. attorney general1 On July 21, 2002, WorldCom Group, a telecommunications company with more than $30Read MoreAudit Cases14211 Words   |  57 Pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 A Day in the Life of Brent Dorsey Staff Auditor Professional Pressures 59 63 65 71 79 3.2 Nathan Johnson’s Rental Car Reimbursement Solving Ethical Dilemmas–Should He Pocket the Cash? Recognizing It’s a Fraud and Evaluating What to Do . . . . . . 3.3 The Anonymous Caller 3.4 WorldCom The Story of a Whistleblower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 HollingerRead MoreThe Theoretical Framework Of The Study And Is Divided Into Four Main Sections10335 Words   |  42 Pagestheoretical framework of the study and is divided into four main sections. The first section describes the recent financial crisis or global economic recession. Section two reviews any similarities between the recent crisis and previous crises. Section three explores the measures taken by governments to prevent a reoccurrence of a financial crisis Section four discusses FDI and mergers and acquisitions. 2.2 Financial Crisis/Global Economic Recession As defined by Eichengreen and Portes (1987) a financialRead MoreConsumer Behavior Towards Online Shopping18477 Words   |  74 Pagesgroups to analyse their behaviour towards online shopping amp; future of e-shopping in the city amp; India. At present e-commerce is an emerging market segment which is growing rapidly. Our main focus here is on e-shopping as many multinational companies are entering this market segment rapidly in past few years. Since online retailing is a new retailing medium and online consumer behavior is diverse from traditional consumer behavior, we aim to identify what influences the online consumer, i.eRead MoreMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 PagesMISTAKES AND SUCCESSES 30TH ANNIVERSARY Robert F. Hartley Cleveland State University JOHN WILEY SONS, INC. VICE PRESIDENT PUBLISHER EXECUTIVE EDITOR ASSISTANT EDITOR PRODUCTION MANAGER PRODUCTION ASSISTANT EXECUTIVE MARKETING MANAGER ASSISTANT MARKETING MANAGER MARKETING ASSISTANT DESIGN DIRECTOR SENIOR DESIGNER SENIOR MEDIA EDITOR George Hoffman Lise Johnson Carissa Doshi Dorothy Sinclair Matt Winslow Amy Scholz Carly DeCandia Alana Filipovich Jeof Vita ArthurRead MoreCase Study148348 Words   |  594 Pages978-0-273-73552-6 (web) ï £ © Pearson Education Limited 2011 Lecturers adopting the main text are permitted to download and photocopy the manual as required. Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies around the world. Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk ---------------------------------This edition published 2011  © Pearson Education Limited 2011 The rights of Gerry Johnson, Richard Whittington and Kevan Scholes to be identifiedRead MoreBhopal Gas Disaster84210 Words   |  337 PagesExecutive Summary On December 3, 1984, toxic poisonous methyl isocyanate gas leaked from Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL s) pesticide plant in Bhopal. The gas leak triggered a disaster that is now widely recognized as the world worst industrial catastrophe. Thousands of people were killed instantly and more than 25,000 people have died of gas-related illnesses, several thousands more maimed for life since. Union Carbide negotiated a settlement with the Indian Government in 1989 for $470 millionRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesAcquisitions Editor: Kim Norbuta Editorial Project Manager: Claudia Fernandes Director of Marketing: Patrice Lumumba Jones Marketing Manager: Nikki Ayana Jones Senior Marketing Assistant: Ian Gold Senior Managing Editor: Judy Leale Senior Production Project Manager: Kelly Warsak Senior Operations Supervisor: Arnold Vila Operations Specialist: Ilene Kahn Senior Art Director: Janet Slowik Interior Design: Suzanne Duda and Michael Fruhbeis Permissions Project Manager: Shannon Barbe Manager, Cover Visual ResearchRead MoreToyota Supply Chain78751 Words   |  316 Pagesservices of a competent professional person should besought. —From a Declaration of Principles jointly adopted by a Committeeof the American Bar Association and a Committee of Publishers TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (â€Å"McGraw-Hill†) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompileRead MoreRetail Management30153 Words   |  121 Pagesgrowth of unorganized retail sector is pegged at 6 percent.[4] The Retail Business in India is currently at the point of inflection. Rapid change with investments to the tune of US $ 25 billion is being planned by several Indian and multinational companies in the next 5 years. It is a huge industry in terms of size and according to management consulting firm Technopak Advisors Pvt. Ltd., it is valued at about US $ 350 billion. Organized retail is expected to garner about 16-18 percent of the total

Input Controls Free Essays

Input Controls When we talk about input controls, what are we really talking about? Input control includes the necessary measures to ensure that data is correct, complete, and secure. A system analyst must focus on input control during every phrase of input design, starting with source documents that promote data accuracy and quality. (Shelly Rosenblatt, (2012)). We will write a custom essay sample on Input Controls or any similar topic only for you Order Now Input controls can help the flow of data in a database to be the same format and easy to understand. Without input controls there can be data integrity errors that could occur and cause information to be incorrect in the database. There are advantages and disadvantages to restricting user interfaces to limit a person ability of typing in too much information or maybe not enough information. Although there are many different types of input controls in this paper there will be only four of them that are addressed in this paper; this would include input mask, validation rules, source documents and batch input. First let’s talk about input mask. Input mask is an appearance that helps to characterize what type of contact is allowed in a given field on a template. The main purpose behind the input mask is to keep the data entry process somewhat the same and decrease the chances for incorrect data to be entered into the field. The input field entry can be configured to allow automatic field input as a way of saving time and resources. Input mask is created doing the process of computer programming. The fields on the template are recognized with specific control values. The values make it impossible to enter data that is not compatible with the values. An example of that would be when a field that contains an input mask that only allows letters will automatically reject the input of numbers and another one would be automatically converting the input into an adequate format an example of that would be when the input mask requires that the date field on the template specifies a format that is structured as date/month/year. Even if you enter the date into the field follows a month/date/year format, the input system reads the entered data and automatically converts it into the proper form. Input mask is a type of tool which had been developed for the purpose of telling the person that what sort of things need to be provided as an input so that the desired output can be achieved. The input mask basically acts as developer software. The text box is the tool where the input needs to be entered. The input mask can also act as a template or a simple format and this basically differs from situation to situation. In this transcription errors are the one which needs to be reduced and this is done through the way of data integrity which is one of the most basic features of the input mask. Validation rule is a criterion used in the process of data validation, carried out after the data has been encoded onto an input medium and involves a data vet or validation program. This is distinct from formal verification, where the operation of a program is determined to be that which was intended, and that meets the purpose. This method is to check that data fall the correct parameters defined by the systems analyst. A judgment as to whether data is official which is possible made by the validation program, but it cannot ensure the entire accurateness. This can only be achieved through the use of all the clerical and computer controls built into the system at the design stage. The difference between data authority and correctness can be illustrated with a trivial example. An example of validations rules is when a user cannot misspell a customer name if it is not entered, or is entered automatically based on the user enter the customer ID. (Shelly Rosenblatt, (2012)). There are at least eight different types of data validation rules; a sequence check, existence check, data type check, range check, reasonableness check, validity check, combination check and batch controls. Source documents is a form used to request and collect input data, trigger or authorize an input action, and provide a record of the original transaction. Source documents generally are paper based. Some examples of source documents would be cash receipt, cancelled check, invoice sent or received, credit memo for a customer refund and employee time sheet. At a bare minimum, each source document should include the date, the amount, and a description of the transaction. When practical, beyond these minimum requirements source documents should contain the name and address of the other party of the transaction. When a source document does not exist, for example, when a cash receipt is not provided by a vendor or is absent, a document should be generated as soon as possible after the operation, using other documents such as bank statements to support the information on the generated source document. Once a transaction has been journalized, the source document should be filed and made retrievable so that connections can be verified should the need arise at a later date. Batch input is a process when data entry is performed on a specified time schedule, such as daily, weekly, monthly, or longer. An example of this would be when a payroll department collects time cards at the end of the week and enters the data as a batch. Some advantages of batch input are collection and entering can be done off-line, entering data can be done by trained personnel, processing can be done very quickly and can be done during non-peak times. Now for some of the disadvantages are, data collection usually has to be a centralized activity, data entry usually needs to be done by specially trained personnel. The processing activity is delayed; hence the possibility exists for data to be considered old or untimely when it finally gets processed. Since processing is usually done during off-hours, input errors detected during processing would not get corrected until the next regularly scheduled processing of input data. The off-hours computer operator may have to call the systems analyst or programmer if the program malfunctions. Below you will see a design for a web-based input for making a hotel reservation which will be using many of the concepts that are mentioned in the paper when talking about input controls. We will look at it in phases. Information gathering Phase 1 – Search and evaluation Input stay requirements – including location (city) and proposed dates of stay Compare and evaluate results – user may view multiple hotel / room / rate combinations Decide – user decides which hotel / room / rate combination meets their requirements Reservation making Phase 2 – Selection Select hotel, room and rate – the user selects the hotel / room / rate they wish to book Select additional rooms and rates – the user adds additional rooms if required Phase 3 – Checkout Input guest details – such as name, address, email address etc. Input payment details – such as credit card details or other payment method Confirm reservation Standard booking processes Screen 1Screen 2Screen 3 Screen 2 Screen 3 Enter search criteria: †¢ Dates †¢ City name [SUBMIT] Display hotels: Hotel 1 [SELECT] Hotel 2 [SELECT] Hotel 3 [SELECT] Display and select rates: Hotel 1 Rate 1 [SELECT] Rate 2 [SELECT] Rate 3 Figure 1: Three-stage screen flow Figure 2: Selection of hotel – ‘Screen 2’ example from Opodo. co. uk Figure 3: Selection of rate – ‘Screen 3’ example from Trip. com Screen 1Screen 2 Enter search criteria: †¢ City †¢ Dates [SUBMIT] Display hotels: Hotel 1 Rate 1 [SELECT] Rate 2 [SELECT] Rate 3 [SELECT] Hotel 2 Rate 1 [SELECT] Rate 2 [SELECT] Rate 3 [SELECT] Hotel 3 Rate 1 [SELECT] Rate 2 [SELECT] Rate 3 [SELECT] Figure 4: Two-stage screen flow Figure 5: Selection of rate and hotel – ‘Screen 2’ example from Expedia. co. uk TABLE 1: Search and evaluation styles Search and evaluation style Travel agency Hotel only Hotel chain Total A Select hotel on screen 2 Select rate on screen 3 10 13 6 29 B Select hotel and rate together on one screen 6 17 2 25 Other -132033 Table 1 demonstrates that for travel agencies and hotel-only websites, there is an even split between using style A and style B. The table also shows that hotel chains generally use other search and evaluation styles. References Amas. syr. edu. 8 Dec 2011. Application Self Evaluation. Retrieved 9 Feb 2012 from http://amas. syr. edu/AMAS/display. cfm? content_ID=%23%28%28%25! %0A Noyes, Brian. 2010 June. Enforcing Complex Business Data Rules with WPF. Retrieved on 9 Feb 2012 from http://msdn. microsoft. com/en-us/magazine/ff714593. aspx Shelly, G. B. , Rosenblatt, H. J. (2012). System Analysis and Design (9th ed. ). Boston: Thomson Course Technology. How to cite Input Controls, Papers Input Controls Free Essays | | |Input Controls | | | | | Many company’s do their best to protect data entry of the company, clients, consumers, and employees. The user interfaces consist of process-control which allows screen command from user in the system. Input controls will ensure that the data entered is safe, secure, complete and accurate. We will write a custom essay sample on Input Controls or any similar topic only for you Order Now â€Å"Data can be entered into a computer application from either manual online input or by scheduled  automated processing. The  input control reviewer should determine the adequacy of both manual and automated controls over data input to ensure that data is input accurately with optimum use of computerized validation and editing and that error handling procedures facilitate the timely and accurate resubmission of all corrected data† ( Application Self Evaluation. , September 25, 2012). The four types of input controls are audit trails, encryption, password security, and data security. An audit trail takes the source of the data from the each system, and record it once entered. In most businesses they have an audit group that records everything within the system. It can also reconstruct events after problems have occurred, monitor the system or problem, and prevent unauthorized access. â€Å"A company might also use an audit trail to provide a basis for account reconciliation, to provide a historical report to plan and support budgets, and to provide a record of sales in case of a tax audit† (Rouse, M. , n. d. ). Audit trails is broken into many parts such as individual accountability, reconstruction of events, problem monitoring and intrusion detection. Individual accountability consists of action from the user that is monitor and tracked, which in turn gives them accountability of their own actions. This pushes the users into following policies and procedures set by the company and if taken advantage of the user will then be accountable for their actions. When there is a problem they will reconstruct the events by assess the amount of damages in the review report to pinpoint how, when, and they the particular problem occurred. When it comes to problem monitoring audit trail would use monitoring and tracking software in order to find the problem that occurred online. the results will be presented to the IT department real-time and helps to detect system problems, such as hardware failure, over utilization of resources and network outages. Intrusion detection detects any unauthorized access or use of any system and the audit trail will record the data. That data is then effectively research in order to aid intrusion detection. Encryption is the most effective and efficient type of input controls. When you see that your data is secured, and protected this mean that it is encrypted. Encryption is broken up into two main functions such as symmetric and asymmetric. Both are great encryptions tools but the difference is in how they encrypt data. Symmetric encrypt and decrypt data with the same key whereas asymmetric encrypt and decrypt data with different keys. When we talk about keys we are referring to private keys and public keys. The public key is freely distributed and private key is then we have password security input control which is a vital component on any network. Many industry use one of the many types of encryption to be able run on their network it will depend on the policies and procedures that are set. Password must be secured in many ways such as they will need to be in a certain length, and a combination of characters. Most company’s make users change password every 30 to 60 days or more. It all depends on the policies and procedures they have set. From the user stand point it is tedious to continue changing your password all the time. The best way to ease the pain from the user is the have to be properly educated on why passwords have to be so complex and why they have to be change within a certain timeframe. Another input control is data security these are procedures that protect the system from data loss. Data security ensures the company’s privacy of information is being protected. Audit trail stored the files and reports, then data security protect those files from unauthorized access. Data security is ran on a regular basis by the IT team, which is sometimes called maintenance on the network to be able to backup, store, secured and protect all data. If the data input controls were not in place the integrity of those errors can render any system to malfunction. If the system malfunction this could lead to disk crash, computer failures, and sensitive information would not be secured. Therefore, if sensitive information is not protected then anyone within the company will have access to it. If the system starts to malfunction and the network is down this can cause the whole company to lose data and financial lose. In order to minimize such errors from developing most business would backup information on a regular basis. They can use of error detections and correction software by there IT department to rapidly defend against any issues. Companies can use validation rules to reduce the number of error and improve data quality. Whereas data recovery utilities can restore data loses and damages. Most companies will follow and policies and procedures to makes sure business needs are met. The input controls provided by graphical user interfaces (GUIs) constrain input values to help meet database integrity and validation rules. Sometimes, however, the only data available to be entered is considered invalid. Similarly, there are other times when the data to be entered is valid but is known to be inaccurate† (Flexible Input Controls, n. d). User interface design is the way data is communicated between one or more systems and how the user interacts with such system. This user interface must understand the user principles and human interactions. This is why the user interface is an essential component of system development lifecycle. Input mask is an effective way to prevent errors and data entries. The advantages of restricting users within the user interfaces are only allowing them to access to certain information. Therefore the user will not change any configurations or settings within the user interface. They will not allowing them to access personal information other than their own. A disadvantage of not having restrictions is that the system is not protected. Users are gaining access to personal and sensitive information. [pic] References Rouse, M. (n. d. ). What is audit trail? – Definition from WhatIs. com. CIO information, news and tips – SearchCIO. com. Retrieved November 18, 2012, from http://searchcio. techtarget. com/definition/audit-trail Flexible Input Controls for Humane User Interfaces | Usability, etc.. (n. d. ). Usability, etc. | Making things easier to use and understand. Retrieved November 18, 2012, from http://usabilityetc. com/articles/flexible-input-controls/ Application Self Evaluation. (2012, September 25). AMAS Website. Retrieved November 15, 2012, from http://amas. syr. edu/AMAS/display. cfm? content_ID=%23((%25! %0A How to cite Input Controls, Essay examples

Comparison of Maria Winkelmann and Laura Bassi free essay sample

Although women have made great contributions in science, only a few were credited for their work. Many of these women faced a wide variety of challenges that inhibited their contributions to the science community. Others were unable to attain positions they were interested in, as women were often strongly criticized in the academic fields. Although criticism lessened in the 20th century, both the 17th and 18th centuries proved to be extremely difficult for women in science. For most women during this time, the only education they received was from private tutors if they were able to afford it. While this is a good way to begin an education, women were constantly discouraged from attending private universities. Both Maria Winkelmann and Laura Bassi were some of the first women in science to be acknowledged for their accomplishments in science and set foundations for future women to peruse an education in science. Although women constituted roughly 14% of Germany’s astronomers, only a few such as Maria Winkelmann directed and published their own work. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparison of Maria Winkelmann and Laura Bassi or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Because most women were not regarded as legitimate scientists during the early 16th century, the apprentice system was one of the only ways for women to train in sciences such as astronomy. Maria was born in 1670 at Panitzch and was the daughter of a Lutheran minister. She was well off and was educated privately by her father and after his death, her uncle. Maria Winkelmann was very proficient in the arts and sciences from an early age, and she was especially interested in astronomy. She received even more special training in astronomy from Christoph Arnold who lived in the neighboring town. Maria Winkelmann achieved her nobility after marrying Gottfried Kirch, a prominent German astronomer, and used its benefits towards her advantage. In 1710, Maria Winkelmann petitioned the Academy of Sciences for a position as calendar maker. During an observation in 1702, she discovered an unknown comet. This alone should have secured her a position in the astronomical community, but her status as a woman did not change. In the 1930s, F. H. Weiss published her original report of this comet after sighting it again. The report of a new comet was sent immediately to the king, and it was sent in Kirch’s name, not Maria Winkelmann’s. Although she should have received full credit for the discovery, she did not have a full understanding of Latin, the current language of the scientific community in Germany. Her previous publications was in her mother language, German. Maria Winkelmann worked hard to gain acknowledgment, and frequently wrote letters to the director of the academy, Leibniz, who later presented her to the Prussian court where she explained her sighting of sunspots. Through her meeting with the Prussian court, she gained a lot of followers who praised her for her contribution to the astronomical community. Through this she released two pamphlets in 1709 and 17011 which increased her fame. Maria Winkelmann’s husband died in 1710, leaving an open spot to appoint a new astronomer. Despite her immense qualifications, Maria Winkelmann did not appear once in the deliberations. This was mainly due to the fact that all of the other candidates had degrees, which she was lacking. She argued for a position as assistant calendar maker, which sparked a conversation with the director of the academy about the precedent it may be setting in hiring women. This caused her rejection, as the academy did not want to have a reputation for hiring women. After continually appealing, she received a final rejection without any specific reason. She was cautioned to retire into the background, and let the other astronomers talk to guests asking about the observatory. Laura Bassi’s case was a little different from Maria Winkelmann’s. Bassi was the only woman in the eighteenth century whose circumstances allowed her an opportunity to engage in the scientific activities of her male counterparts. Laura Bassi lived from 1711 until 1778. She was fortunate enough to receive an education privately, being the daughter of a lawyer, from Gaetano Tacconi. Tacconi was a professor at the University of Bologna and a member of the Institute academy. She excelled in her academics, and was fluent in Latin, Cartesian, and Newtonian philosophy and earned a title as a, â€Å"monster in philosophy. † The Tacconi family eventually allowed a select group of professors to hear Bassi dispute privately among various scientific studies. News of her disputes spread and she eventually engaged in a public dispute with five university professors. After receiving her degree at the University of Bologna, she was offered a permanent role in the academic city, and her duties were those as a lecturer restrictively. Unlike Winkelmann, she received a university degree and was the second woman ever to do so. She was also the first woman ever to be offered an official teaching position at any university in Europe. She attended the University of Bologna and after graduation, introduced newer teaching techniques in the university’s curriculum. She became the first woman in Italy to teach Newtonian natural philosophy. In 1749 she presented a dissertation on the problem of gravity and in 1763 she presented another on infrangibility at the institute. In 1757 she published a paper on hydraulics that worked out certain theorems that were posed by Newton. Along with her husband, Giuseppe Veratti, she made the University of Bologna a center for experimental research in electricity. Maria Winelmann faced many challenges in her persuit of scientific achievments. Although she had many, she was unable to receive credit for her astounding discoveries strictly because she was not a male. Although she did not always receive recognition, her activities in the field of science served as a benchmark for future women scientist such as Laura Bassi. Bassi, having lived slightly after Maria Winklemann, encountered less problems publishing her own work and receiving recognition. Her special circumstances allowed her to participate in public debates and had special leverage in the University of Bologna. Because she was one of the first women ever to receive a university degree, Bassi served as a benchmark to install women in Italy’s university system as well as install new teaching techniques in the University of Bologna’s curriculum.